by Andrew Fraknoi
(Foothill College & the Astronomical Society of the Pacific)
[Version 1.1; Jan. 2000]
© 2000 by Andrew Fraknoi. The right to reproduce for any non-profit educational purpose is hereby granted. For any other use, contact the author at: fraknoiandrew {at} fhda.edu.
1. Light
Pollution
2. Observatory Sites and the Environment
3. Radio Interference
4. Preventing the Contamination of Earth or Other Worlds
Like every other human endeavor, the exploration of the universe takes place in the context of our terrestrial environment. As human activity changes that environment, issues are raised for both astronomers and those who enjoy the fruits of their research. In this resource list, we examine four areas where the environment and the needs of astronomers meet: the problems caused by the uncontrolled growth of city lights; the issue of reconciling the need of new observatory sites with the safeguarding of endangered species; the difficulty of protecting the frequencies (channels) needed for radio astronomy from the encroachment of cellular phones and other forms of radio communication on Earth; and the thorny problem of how we protect other planets from Earth micro-organisms and the Earth from possible extra-terrestrial microbes. Additions to this list are most welcome.
Few places on Earth remain truly dark as human civilization and its electric lights spread across the globe. For astronomers, trying to collect the faint light of distant objects, this "light pollution" has become a serious problem. Some lights are worse than others in terms of the number of colors (wavelengths) they block from celestial objects. The sources below describe the attempts to balance the needs of cities with the requirements of observatories, and the work astronomers are doing to educate political leaders and the public about this issue.
Readings
Crawford, D. & Hunter, T. "The Battle Against Light Pollution" in Sky & Telescope, July 1990, p. 23. A fine review of the current status of problems and solution.
Crawford, D. & Robinson, W. Light Pollution: Problems and Solutions. 1990, Astronomical Society of the Pacific. A set of 20 slides and a 24-page information booklet to help teach and inform about the issues.
Davidson, K. "Hype in Space: Billboards and Other Threats to the Dark" in Mercury, May/June 1993, p. 80.
Hendry, A. "Light Pollution: A Status Report" in Sky & Telescope, June 1984, p. 504.
Hunter, T. & Goff, B. "Shielding the Night Sky" in Astronomy, Sep. 1988, p. 47.
Hunter, T. & Crawford, D. "A Timetable for Better Lighting" in Sky & Telescope, Mar. 1995, p. 96. Progress report on quest for better public lighting in the Northeast.
Kosai, H., et al. "Night Sky Brightness Over Japan" in Sky & Telescope, Nov. 1992, p. 564.
Levy, D. "Ten Dark-Sky Years" in Sky & Telescope, Sep. 1998, p. 32. On the work of the International Dark-Sky Association.
Mood, J. & S. "Palomar and the Politics of Light Pollution" in Astronomy, Nov. 1985, p. 6.
O'Meara, S. "Dark
Nights are Safe Nights" in Sky & Telescope, Sep. 1998, p. 84. On ways
you can help safeguard the night in your community.
Sperling, N. "Light Pollution: A Challenge for Astronomers" in Mercury, Sep/Oct. 1986, p. 144.
Sullivan, W. "Our Endangered Night Skies" in Sky & Telescope, May 1984, p. 412. On how the pollution in light and radio waves can be detected from space.
Taubes, G. "Twinkle, Twinkle, Great Big Bauble" in Discover, Nov. 1987, p. 60. On the ring of light the French had proposed putting into space.
Web Sites
International
Dark-Sky Association (IDA)
- this non-profit organization works to inform the public about light pollution
and to minimize its effects; their web site is a treasure-trove of information,
advocacy, and news.
American
Astronomical Society Committee on Light Pollution, Radio Interference and
Space Debris
- has a more technical bibliography than ours, resolutions, web links, etc.
British
Astronomical Association Campaign for Dark Skies
- an organization in Great Britain that works with IDA; its site has information
sheets, newsletters, examples, links, etc.
Sky
& Telescope Light Pollution Notes
- has the text of relevant articles from the magazine (for amateur astronomers)
and a set of notes updating issues around the world by contributing editor
Fred Schaaf.
2. Observatory Sites and the Environment
While many new observatories must now file an environmental impact statement, the most publicized clash between astronomers and environmentalist was over a site in Arizona called Mount Graham, where there was some concerned over an endangered species of squirrel.
Readings
Waldrop, M. "The Long, Sad Saga of Mount Graham" in Science, 22 June 1990, vol. 248, p. 1479. The story of how a new site for telescopes in Arizona pits astronomers and environmentalists against each other.
Travis, J. "Scopes and Squirrels Return to Court" in Science, 2 Sep. 1994, vol. 265, p. 1356. A sequel to the above. (Further updates can be found on the web sites below.)
Muro, M. "Array Plans Blocked by Indian Ritual Site" in Science, 10 Sep. 1999, vol. 285, p. 1650. How proximity to a native American ritual sweat hut is endangering plans for an array of gamma-ray telescopes. (Update in Science, 24 Dec. 1999, vol. 286, p. 2433.)
Web Sites
Mt.
Graham International Observatory Site
- this official web site for the U. of Arizona, summarizes cultural and legal
issues concerning the observatory site in the Coronado national forest, including
the squirrels issue and concerns by some members of Native American tribes
about disturbing sacred burial grounds
Vatican
Observatory Statement on Mount Graham and Ecology
- a position paper by one of the observatories using Mt. Graham.
Mt.
Graham: Non-controversy of the Decade
- an opinion piece strongly favoring the observatory, by a space enthusiast
"Star
Gate"
- this article from an alternative news weekly in Phoenix tells the Mt. Graham
story from the point of view of the environmental activists, a radically different
perspective from the astronomers.
Radio astronomer search for "faint" radio static from cosmic objects. Increasingly, the signals they are searching for are lost in the "din" of terrestrial radio communications, particularly the requirements of cellular phones and other modern communications using satellites. Major political battles loom as the demands of business clash with the need to protect certain important channels for radio astronomy.
Readings
Carpenter, S. "Lost Space: Rising Din Threatens Radio Astronomy" in Science News, Sep. 11, 1999, vol. 156, p. 168. Good summary of current situation.
Cohen, J. "Radio Pollution: The Invisible Threat to Radio Astronomy" in Astronomy & Geophysics (a journal of the Royal Astronomical Society), Dec. 1999, vol. 40, issue 6, p. 8. Good review from a European perspective.
Cohen, N. & Clegg, A. "What Should We Do about Radio Interference?" in Mercury, Sep/Oct. 1995, p. 10. A point-counterpoint discussion.
Feder, T. "Europe's Radio Astronomers Score in Spectrum Battle" in Physics Today, Oct. 1998, p. 75. Brief news item about Iridium satellites.
Jackson, C. "The Allocation of the Radio Spectrum" in Scientific American, Feb. 1980. Saving the "channels" radio astronomers need from being used for terrestrial purposes.
Pankonin, V. "Protecting Radio Windows for Astronomy" in Sky & Telescope, Apr. 1981, p. 308.
Roth, J. "Will the Sun Set on Radio Astronomy?" in Sky & Telescope, Apr. 1997, p. 40. Explains the "pollution" of the radio spectrum by human activities.
"Cell Phones Threaten Radio Telescope" in Science, vol. 278, p. 1569 (28 Nov. 1997). Short news article on a problem in India.
Web Sites
American
Astronomical Society Committee on Light Pollution, Radio Interference and
Space Debris
- has a more technical bibliography than ours, web links, etc.
National
Radio Quiet Zone
- a special area has been created around the National Radio Astronomy Observatory
in Green Bank, West Virginia, and this site has a map and some (often technical)
information about it
Committee
on Radio Frequencies
- set up through the European Science Foundation, this group coordinates European
efforts to protect frequencies; its site has many links to activities in this
arena around the world
Table
of Frequencies Protected for Astronomy and Space Science
- this technical site shows the regions of the spectrum that are protected
by law or treaty, and gives links and references to the legal documents involved.
4. Preventing the Contamination of Earth or Other Worlds
As our robot probes travel to the other bodies in our solar system, and even begin to return samples of these other worlds to Earth, we must confront the issue of planetary contamination. How do we keep our microbes from hitching a ride to other worlds, and how do we prevent any possible microbes from Mars or Europa (for example) from returning to Earth and (possibly) harming life on our planet?
Readings
Hargrove, E., ed. Beyond Spaceship Earth: Environmental Ethics and the Solar System. 1886, Sierra Club Books. Essays on exploiting or preserving planets, on implications of space exploration, on pollution in space, etc.
Miller, R. "The Natural Universe" in Mercury, Jan/Feb. 1997, p. 27. An environmental reporter muses on the effects the discovery of life on Mars would have on our concerns for the environment.
Miller, R. "To Preserve and Protect" in Mercury, Mar/Apr. 1999, p. 33. Proposes an astro-environmental view for space exploration.
Pendick, D. "The Real Men in Black" in Astronomy, July 1999, p. 36. Profile of John Rummel, NASA's Planetary Protection Officer, whose task it is to see that micro-organisms from other worlds don't contaminate the Earth.
Race, M. & Rummel, J. "Bring 'em Back Alive (or at Least Carefully)" in Ad Astra (the journal of the National Space Society), Jan/Feb. 1999, p. 37. [This article is also available on line; see below.]
Sagan, C., et al. "Planetary Protection" in The Planetary Report (the magazine of the Planetary Society), Jul/Aug. 1994, p. 3. Special issue devoted to the topic.
Web Sites
"Bring
'em Back Alive"
- the text of the Race and Rummel article cited above.
"Mars:
A Biological Bugaboo"
- the text of a short article by Leonard David from 1992, introducing issues
in planetary protection.
Planetary
Protection Web Pages
- part of a private astrobiology web site by a space enthusiast, these pages
review some of the history (with lunar quarantine and contamination issues),
some of the legal and diplomatic issues , and NASA plans for the future.
Sample
Return from Small Solar System Bodies: Task Group Report
an evaluation by a panel at the National Academy of Sciences of the consequences
of bringing back samples from moons, comets, or asteroids.
Mars
Sample Return: Task Group Report
- a 1997 report on issues and recommendations about bringing samples of Mars
to Earth.
NOTE: I would like to thank Margaret Race and David Finley for their assistance with this bibliography.
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